Ethics

Philosophy · Logic, ethics and special topics. The idea in plain words, the rules to remember, the mistake to avoid and a worked example, written and checked by Mega Lecture.

Test this topic free All Philosophy topics

The idea

Normative ethics asks what makes an action right. Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill) looks at consequences: the right act produces the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Kant's deontology looks at duty: an act is right only if its maxim can be willed as a universal law, and it has moral worth only if it is done from duty. Virtue ethics (Aristotle) looks at character: the good person has formed the habits of virtue.

Hedonism says pleasure is the only thing good in itself. Egoism says each person pursues, or ought to pursue, his own interest.

Meta-ethics does not ask what is right. It asks what moral words mean and whether moral judgements can be true. Moral responsibility is usually held to require freedom of the will.

Rules to remember

Bentham: pleasures differ only in quantity, measured by the hedonic calculus. Mill, 'Utilitarianism': pleasures also differ in quality (higher and lower pleasures).
Kant, 'Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals' (1785): only a good will is good without qualification. A hypothetical imperative says 'if you want X, do Y'; the categorical imperative commands without condition.
Formula of universal law: act only on a maxim you can will to become a universal law. Formula of humanity: treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means.
Aristotle, 'Nicomachean Ethics': the aim is eudaimonia (flourishing); virtue is a mean between excess and deficiency, e.g. courage between rashness and cowardice.
Psychological egoism: people always do act from self-interest (a claim of fact). Ethical egoism: people ought to (a claim of value).
Meta-ethics: Moore's naturalistic fallacy ('Principia Ethica', 1903); emotivism (Ayer, Stevenson): moral statements express attitudes; Hume: no 'ought' from an 'is'.
Intrinsic good is good in itself; instrumental good is good as a means. 'Ought implies can.' Free will: libertarianism, hard determinism, compatibilism.

Common mistake

Candidates often say Kant judges an act by its results. For Kant the moral worth of an act lies in the motive of duty, so an act that merely agrees with duty but is done from self-interest has no moral worth.

Worked example

A man in need of money plans to borrow it with a promise to repay, knowing he never will. How does Kant's formula of universal law judge this?

State the maxim: 'When I need money, I will make a promise that I do not intend to keep.'
Universalise it: suppose everyone in need made false promises.
Then nobody would believe any promise, so promising would no longer be possible and the man's own plan would fail.
The maxim cannot even be conceived as a universal law without contradiction.

Answer: The false promise is forbidden: its maxim cannot be universalised, so it breaks the categorical imperative whatever good results it might bring.

Ask about this

Type what you are stuck on. The helper finds the explanation, worked examples and the notes to read, free and instant.

Keep going

← Fallacies and scientific method Epistemology and metaphysics →Take a Philosophy test