Bureaucracy, civil-military relations and revolution

Political Science · Comparative politics and political change. The idea in plain words, the rules to remember, the mistake to avoid and a worked example, written and checked by Mega Lecture.

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The idea

Bureaucracy is the permanent body of appointed officials that carries out government policy. Max Weber described its ideal type as a rational organisation based on rules, and judged it technically superior because it is precise, predictable and fast.

Civil-military relations concern who controls the armed forces. Civilian supremacy means that elected authorities decide policy and the military carries it out. Where civilian institutions are weak, the military may enter politics.

Political change comes in three forms. A revolution is a rapid, basic change of the political and social order with mass participation. A coup is a sudden seizure of government by a small group, usually military. Reform is gradual change within the existing system.

Rules to remember

Weber's ideal type: hierarchy of offices, fixed written rules, division of labour by specialisation, appointment and promotion on merit, impersonality, written records, a salaried career.
Impersonality: officials apply the rules to all alike, without personal favour. Red tape: excessive rules and paperwork that delay action.
Civil servants in a parliamentary democracy are expected to be politically neutral, permanent and anonymous.
Huntington, The Soldier and the State (1957): objective civilian control is achieved by maximising military professionalism and keeping the military out of politics.
Praetorianism: the tendency of the military to dominate politics where civilian institutions are weak.
Crane Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolution (1938): power passes from moderates to radicals, then a reaction (Thermidor). Ted Gurr, Why Men Rebel (1970): relative deprivation.
Marxist view: revolution arises from class conflict rooted in the economic structure. Other cited causes: economic distress, inequality, a weak or illegitimate regime, defeat in war.

Common mistake

A coup is not a revolution. A coup changes the rulers at the top; a revolution changes the system and involves the masses. Check for mass participation and for change in the social order before choosing.

Worked example

A ministry fills its posts through a competitive examination, pays fixed salaries by grade, and requires every decision to follow written rules and be recorded on file. Which model does this follow, and which feature would be broken if a minister appointed his relative without the examination?

Examination, grades, written rules and files are features of Weber's ideal-type bureaucracy.
Recruitment by examination is the principle of appointment on merit.
Appointing a relative uses personal ties instead of qualifications, which also offends impersonality.

Answer: Weber's rational-legal bureaucracy; the appointment would break merit-based recruitment (and impersonality).

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